Green-synthesized titanium dioxide nanoparticles with pyrogallol functionalization: A novel approach using cow dung extract for anticancer applications

Growing interest has been shown in the environment friendly synthesis of metal nanoparticles, yet no published research exists on synthesizing titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO₂NPs) using cow dung extract (CD). In this manuscript, we synthesized TiO₂NPs using CD extract (CD-TiO₂) and functionalized them with pyrogallol (P-CD-TiO₂). The physicochemical characteristics of the TiO₂NPs were evaluated using UV-Vis spectroscopy, dynamic light scattering, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy. The qualitative analysis of CD extract and biological activities of CD-TiO₂ and P-CD-TiO₂ were evaluated. The potential anticancer activity was examined in vitro against Hep3B using the MTT assay. The hydrodynamic size of CD-TiO₂ and P-CD-TiO₂NPs were 147.9 nm and 183.4 nm, respectively. The CD-TiO₂ and P-CD-TiO₂ were spherical in shape, with an average size ranging from 32 nm to 48 nm. CD-TiO₂ and P-CD-TiO₂ showed anti-hemolytic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant activity, and significant cytotoxicity against Hep3B cells. The IC₅₀ of CD-TiO₂ was 379.9 µg/mL, while P-CD-TiO₂ showed a significantly higher cytotoxicity with an IC₅₀ of 31.98 µg/mL. The results revealed that CD extract is an effective reducung agent for TiO₂ nanoparticles synthesis. Notably, the green-synthesized P-CD-TiO₂ NPs exhibited promising anticancer potential in concentration-dependent manner while being safe for red blood cells.